The construction of sexuality through culture and history Essay Example for Free

The construction of sexuality through culture and history Essay Introduction The queer theory has led to questions on the sexuality in various cultures. Teresa de Lauretis is the person [www. cddc. vt. edu]who came up with the phrase â€Å"Queer Theory†. It was at a working conference on theorizing lesbian and gay sexualities that was held at the University of California, Santa Cruz in February 1990. Once the term queer was, at best, slang for homosexual, at worst, a term of homophobic abuse. Today queer has come to be used differently, sometimes as an umbrella term for a coalition of culturally marginal sexual self-identifications and at other times to describe a theoretical model which has developed out of more traditional lesbian and gay studies. Queer focuses on mismatches between sex, gender and desire. Institutionally, queer has been associated most prominently with lesbian and gay subjects, but its analytic framework also includes such topics as cross-dressing, hermaphroditism, gender ambiguity and gender-corrective surgery. In many respects, Queer theory is grounded in gender and sexuality. Due to this association, a debate emerges as to whether sexual orientation is natural or essential to the person, as an essentialist believes, or if sexuality is merely a construction and subject to change [www. cddc. vt. edu]. The essentialist theory was introduced to Queer Criticism as a by-product of feminism when the criticism was known by most as Lesbian/Gay Criticism. The feminists believed that both genders have an essential nature (e. g. nurturing and caring versus being aggressive and selfish), as opposed to differing by a variety of accidental or contingent features brought about by social forces. Due to this belief in the essential nature of a person, it is also natural to assume that a person’s sexual preference would be natural and essential to a person’s personality, who they are. The Constructivists counters that there is no natural, that all meaning is constructed through discourse and there is no other subject other than the creation of meaning for social theory. In a Constructivist perspective, it is not proper to take gay or lesbian as subjects with objective reality; but rather they must be understood in terms of their social context, in how genealogy creates these terms through history. Foucault explains in his The History of Sexuality, 200 years ago [www. ipce. info] there was no linguistic category for gay male. Instead, the term that applied to sex between two men was sodomy. Over time, the homosexual was created through the discourses of medicine and especially psychiatry. What is conventionally understood to be the same practice was gradually transformed from a sinful lifestyle into an issue of sexual orientation. Foucault argues that prior to this discursive creation there was no such thing as a person who could think of himself as essentially gay. Queer theory is mainly addressing the issues on gender and sexuality. Due to this question, a debate arises as to whether sexual orientation is natural or essential to the person, or if sexuality is merely a construction and subject to change. This theory has led to criticism known by most people as Lesbian/Gay Criticism. The feminists believed that both genders have an essential nature for example nurturing and caring versus being aggressive and selfish as opposed to differing by a variety of accidental or contingent features brought about by social forces. so natural to assume that a person’s sexual preference would be natural and essential to a person’s personality, who they are [www. ipce. info]. The Constructivists counter, that there is no natural, that all meaning is constructed through discourse and there is no other subject other than the creation of meaning for social theory. In a Constructivist perspective, it is not proper to take gay or lesbian as subjects with objective reality; but rather they must be understood in terms of their social context, in how genealogy creates these terms through history. Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures This refers to the behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, and references shared by members of sexual minorities or transgendered people by virtue of their membership in those minorities. Not all members of a particular sexual minority participate in, or are aware of, the subculture that may be associated with them. In addition to simply not knowing that the culture exists, non-participants may be geographically or socially isolated, they may feel stigmatized by the subculture, they may simply dislike it (feeling it is outdated, corrupted, or does not align with their personal taste or style), or they may prefer to affiliate with some other culture or subculture. The sexual minorities [Kaahumanu and Yaeger]defined by sexual orientation and gender identity include: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people (LGBT). they are often seen as having a common culture. The existence of (LGBT) has also been questioned by noting the exclusion of some of these groups by others; for example, biphobia among gays and lesbians, transphobia among non-trans LGB people, or lack of inclusiveness of lesbians in gay milieu. For example, in some cities, especially in North America, gay men and lesbians tend to live in certain neighborhoods. This culture is mainly associated with the people of North America or Europe. LGBT communities also organize a number of events to celebrate their culture, such as Pride parades, the Gay Games and Southern Decadence the largest LGBT street fair in North America [Kaahumanu and Yaeger].

Good User Interface :: essays research papers

A Good User Interface Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The majority of today ¡Ã‚ ¦s businesses use the internet to expand their customer base. However, there are several companies who will publish their site on the World Wide Web, before reviewing its user friendliness. And in doing so, they may be losing a customer, due to the poorly designed aspects of that web interface. So, what makes a website a good user interface? Which sites are examples of this, and which sites are not? In the following information, there will be descriptions, benefits, and examples of both types of interfaces.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most important aspect of a user friendly site is the speed of loading the site. For some new surfers, a fast internet connection does not exist. Therefore, it is important to limit the graphics on a web site. Those sites that fill the home page with mostly graphics and images, may find their potential client dropping the page at 50%. An example of such a site is the following wedding photography site: http://www.mindysonshine.com/ Its home page contains mostly digital pictures which take a while to load, before the end user can view what the photographer has to offer. Obviously, a photographer ¡Ã‚ ¦s web site should contain images of their work. However, the requirement would have been better accomplished by limiting the digital images to a link off of the home page as opposed to the opening page. In doing so, a potential customer would be able to open the home page to learn what services are offered, package pricing, and the studio location, prior to becoming impatient, thus moving onto another photographers site.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A website with a well-designed layout is also important to users. It is their window to view what the company has to offer. If the website ¡Ã‚ ¦s layout and appearance is confusing and inefficient, most customers will simply go elsewhere. According to KarenHolman, Information Specialist for Outreach Communications and Technology,  ¡Ã‚ §A good web site puts the needs of its users first.  ¡Ã‚ § Her site lists the following recommendations for attaining this goal „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Know your audience: Who is the end user for the site? „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Satisfy the users' basic questions: Is the information complete and up to date? „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Content remains king: The content answers questions, has no spelling and punctuation errors, is dated and signed, and contains a contact. „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Page Design: Loads quickly, presents information in first one or two pages, and limits special effects. „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Working links: Links are tested regularly to ensure they are working.

A study of anatomy and physiology of movement of upper limb

The procedure in lifting the hand to drink water is a complex one which involves a huge amount of technology inter-transfer between the brain and the eventual skeletal muscle.There is initiation of the movement at the brain which is transmitted via specialized white fibre tracts to the hip flexors via the intermediate spinal cord, involving a very complex mechanism at the cellular levelThe initiation of the   process is at the motor cortex (Ms I) of the brain. The primary motor area is located at the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe. The area controlling the motion of the lower limbs lies towards the superior surface of the brain. Within this area lies the cell body of the primary neuron. These neurons are known as upper motor neurons (UMN).These UMNs receive modulating impulse from the inputs from the cerebellum and the basal ganglia via the extrapyramidal pathways. These tracts modulate the gross movement initiated at the frontal cortex. In turn these areas are modulated by a fferent signals from ascending spino cerebellar, and spino-thalamic pathways.   The signal initiated at the nucleus of the cell body is transmitted electronically via the axon of the myelinated neuron via the mode of salutatory conduction.The myelin sheath which surrounds the axon of nerves that involve fast transport, breaks at intermediate regions known as Nodes of Ranvier. The electrical impulse moves in   a jumping manner at these nodes nerve transmission as a neural impulse, generated by the formation of a nerve action potential. Like all excitable tissue, nerves maintain a resting membrane potential that is the difference of voltage across the membrane of the neuron. In neurons this value is   – 70 mV.This voltage difference is maintained by the Na/K pump on the membranes. This impulse generated at the axon hillock is transmitted via the depolarizing phase which allows sodium ions ingress into cells via opening of the Na channels. This entry of Na in one portion a llows activation of other Na channels, causing depolarization of the adjacent region of the neuron. Subsequently repolarization occurs via the opening of K channels, which restores the membrane potential.Thus this process continues which allows the transmission of impulse. Many such nerves together descend as the descending cortico spinal tract in the pyramidal system, which travels through the midbrain into the spinal cord, decussating at the level of midbrain( 90% of the fibres decussating and forming the lateral spinothalamic tract) and again at the level of spinal cord ( the other 10%, forming the anterior spinothalamic tract) .It is the former which is responsible for the upper limb movements. The cortico-spinal tract travels in the anterior horn cell of the spinal cord till the brachial plexus where they synapse with the spinal ventral root neuron (lower motor neuron). A single post-synaptic neuron receives signals from many neurons. At the axon terminal, the propagation of im pulses leads to release of neurotransmitters, which are stored in specialized vesicles.The released Ach diffuses into the synaptic cleft and binds with receptors on the post synaptic membrane to produce excitatory post synaptic potentials. This leads to generation and propagation of impulse in nerves which are destined to innervate the neuro-muscular junction. At the neuro-muscular junction, Ach is released, which diffuses into the synovial cleft and binds to receptors in the motor end plate, and triggers a muscle action potential.The released Ach is destroyed by the acetylcholinestrase. At the level of the sarcolemma of the muscles, the muscle AP travels along T-tubules, opening Ca release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca binds to troponin-tropomysin complex, which releases the myosin heads, these then bind to the actin thin filaments, and draws them closer to the M line. Meanwhile bringing the Z disc closer.This leads to muscle fibre contraction. This is a self propagati ng sequence eventually leading to the contraction muscles involved in the movement. Each nerve fibre innervates many musle fibres ( about 150). This is the motor unit.The greater the number of motor units recruited by the nerve action potential, the greater the force of contraction of the muscles. In the spinal cord, nerve impulse travels along the brachial plexus (C5 – T1) to innervate the Pectoralis major (Arm adduction and flexion – reaching out to hold the glass), Flexor digitorum superficialis and profundii of all fingers, the interossei and the lumbricals of all digits, opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis , adducor pollicis and abductor pollicis brevis ( gripping of the glass by the fingers flexion at metacarpophalangeal.Proximal interphalangeal and the distal interphalangeal joint of the fingers; the carpometqcarpal joint, metacarpophalangeal and the interphalangeal joint of the thumb); then contraction of the biceps brachii ( elbow flexion) and the supina tor ( supination at the elbow joint); finally the contraction of the triceps muscle ( elbow extension, to put the glass back).This excitatory impulse is also associated with the production of inhibitory action potential ( hyperpolarizing impulse) in the antagonists (eg triceps during elbow flexion, and biceps during elbow extension)   

Analysis Of `` The Ways Of Oppression `` By F. Nelson Mandela

The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall† – Nelson Mandela. It takes high risks and a lot of vitality to overcome oppression. In Martin Luther King’s essay, â€Å"The Ways of Oppression,† there are three distinct ways on how to deal with oppression, which are acquiescence, violence, and non-violent resistance. All of these strategies of dealing with oppression are established in both the film and novel adaptation of the â€Å"Unbroken,† as Louie Zamperini spends many years as a POW in Japan enduring cruel oppression. Throughout the story, the three strategies alternate amongst Louie and his fellow POWs, however, towards the end it’s clear that non-violent resistance is the most successful form of overcoming oppression because it makes Louie the bigger man in learning how to forgive and understand more openly. The first way of dealing with oppression King mentions in his essay is acquiescence. He describes the acquiescence method as the oppressor becoming accustomed to the unjust treatment. In the novel, Unbroken, it became a daily routine for the men to carry tons of coal on their backs. â€Å"They pushed aboard one another, and the hauling went on, punishing their bodies and numbing their minds† (187). This shows how Louie and his fellow POWs grew accustomed to the painful labor their endured at the camp. They couldn’t do anything but continue working because their lives were at risk from the deadly conditions. Another characteristic of theShow MoreRelatedIf Inequality Is Increasing, Are We Likely to See More Armed Conflict?4618 Words   |  19 Pagesmy claim for complexity. In recent times, inequality has been even increasing, yet violent conflict has been comparably less numerous and widespread. How this instance corresponds with the inequality/conflict link will constit ute the last point of analysis. Part I: A theoretical consideration of inequality and armed conflict Academic writing on the relationship of inequality and conflict has been exhaustive, yet it has rarely created clear results. Contradictory results might be explained byRead MoreA Critical Review of â€Å"the Ambiguities of Football, Politics, Culture, and Social Transformation in Latin America† by Tamir Bar-on.14147 Words   |  57 PagesA Critical Review of â€Å"The Ambiguities of Football, Politics, Culture, and Social Transformation in Latin America† by Tamir Bar-On. Introduction: In Latin America, soccer is not a game; it is a way of life. It is mixed in with politics and nationalism. It defines social classes. How politically influential is soccer in Latin America? It is used by â€Å"various Latin American socio-economic elites in order to retard the acceleration of working class and popular discontent† (Bar-On 1997:1.8). Is itRead MoreCoco Cola18335 Words   |  74 PagesThe water is virtually free to all users. These farmers who have been protesting say their problems began after the Coca-Cola factory arrived in 1999. The company has been trying to regain the plant s license, fighting a case that has gone all the way to India s Supreme Court.[17] Near the holy city of  Varanasi  in northeastern India, a local water official blamed a Coke plant — which has been the scene of many protests by NGOs and local residents — for polluting groundwater by releasing wastewaterRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pages Management—-Study and teaching. 2. Management—Problems, exercises, etc. Kim S. II. Title. HD30.4.W46 2011 658.40071 173—dc22 I. Cameron, 2009040522 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 ISBN 10: 0-13-612100-4 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-612100-8 B R I E F TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S Preface xvii Introduction 1 PART I 1 2 3 PERSONAL SKILLS 44 Developing Self-Awareness 45 Managing Personal Stress 105 Solving Problems Analytically and Creatively 167 PART II 4 5 6 7 INTERPERSONAL SKILLSRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 Pagescompanies had counted for cash flow. Increasingly demanding consumer and industrial buyers are basing their purchasing decisions on the quality of products and services, and this requires manufacturers to be vastly more effective and to strengthen the way they manage customer relationships. The sellers are now deeply partnered with supply chain processes; this means that the cost and timing of new product releases have taken on new meaning and have new requirements. Fixed costs, which have always beenRead MoreInternational Management67196 Words   |  269 Pagesspill in the Gulf of Mexico has renewed calls for corporations to do more to protect the planet and governments to get tougher with companies in terms of oversight and accountability. The advent of social networking and other media has transformed the way citizens interact and how businesses market, promote, and distr ibute their products globally. The same can be said for mass collaboration efforts occurring through digital, online technology for the development of new and innovative systems, productsRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagespolitical rivalries that generated and were in turn fed by imperialist expansionism, one cannot begin to comprehend the causes and consequences of the Great War that began in 1914. That conflict determined the contours of the twentieth century in myriad ways. On the one hand, the war set in motion transformative processes that were clearly major departures from those that defined the nineteenth-century world order. On the other, it perversely unleashed forces that would undermine Western world dominance

Realism Vs. Realism A Critique Of Realism - 1863 Words

This paper begins with a brief presentation of Realism and an explanation of why this theory maintains that morality should not influence behavior in international relations. It then presents a Cosmopolitan critique of this stance; namely, that acting in this manner is unjust if doing so fails to promote the greatest good. Of course, this is the consequentialist strain of Cosmopolitan thought. Next, this paper introduces a Rawlsean critique of Realism. Here it is argued that Rawlsean theory takes issue with Realism because acting solely to further the self-interest of one s state would violate the principles agreed upon within the Original Position, as outlined in the Law of Peoples. It is further argued that Realism’s guiding maxim cannot be universalized and therefore, like Cosmopolitanism, Rawlseanism maintains that Realism is unjust, albeit for differing reasons. In closing, this paper presents a Realist response to these critiques. Here it is argued that Realism counters both Rawls and Cosmopolitanism by pointing out that in the absence of a centralized authority, neither theory should be taken seriously. According to Forde, self-interest plays a critical role in Realist thought: the essence of international realism is the primacy of self-interest over moral principle (62). Realists argue that self-interest is paramount in international relations because of the international relations context. Lacking a centralized government or authority results in anShow MoreRelated Pacifisim vs. Realism Essays1735 Words   |  7 PagesPacifisim vs. Realism In this paper I will be analyzing and critiquing the theory of pacifism. This theory is the belief that war is never an option under any circumstance. Even if a nation is being attacked a pacifist will believe that retaliating is morally wrong for a number of reasons. Such reasons behind pacifism are supported by issues of morality and what the pacifist themselves feel to be morality. I will provide three arguments to the pacifist way of thinking. It is an inevitabilityRead MoreKey Differences Between Realism and Neo Realism2781 Words   |  12 PagesaberdWhat are the key differences between Realism and Neo-Realism? Theories provide something better than just guessing, they offer a systematic and coherent way of conceptualizing about the world we live in. Theories act as ‘lenses’ through which we look at and understand the social phenomena and the dimensions that characterize Politics and International Relations. Every theory is based on an assumption and backed by facts. Theory is a testable concept or idea. In science, a theory is not merelyRead MoreEssay on Like water for chocolate6961 Words   |  28 PagesLike Water for Chocolate ~Laura Esquivel~ Ms. Diamond Name_________________________________ Magical Realism At about the middle of the 19th century (when scientific objectivity became â€Å"vogue†), the influence of many social forces caused aesthetic taste to change from romantic idealism to realism. Many writers felt that romantics—with their focus on the spiritual, the abstract, and the ideal—were being dishonest about life as it really was. The realists felt they had an ethical responsibilityRead MoreStrengths And Weaknesses Of Postmodernism713 Words   |  3 Pagesfast-changing progressivist world governed by instrumental reason. Postmodernism or postculturalism, a term often also used, offer a very different and much more radical version of constructivism. They are strongly opposed to the universalist premises of realism, liberalism, Marxism and post-Marxism, and are highly critical of the general phenomenon of the aforementioned modernity (Lawson, p. 145). For clarity, we can look at postmodernism as a theory of society, culture and history and postculturalism asRead MoreWriting and Technology: The Effects of Experimental Instruction in First-Year College Courses1804 Words   |  8 PagesI claim my theoretical framework for this study under two broad assumptions. First: Critical realism, and especially its ontology, offers much to the analysis of education research. Second: Much current education research commits to one of two mistaken ontological positions: the empirical realist ontology in which positivist analysis lives and breathes (Davidsen, 2005; OBoyle McDonough, 2011); and the social constructionist ontology in which post-modernist or post-structuralist analysisRead MoreNaturalism Literary Period2601 Words   |  11 Pagesinvolving popular apprehension during this time period including; man vs. nature, man vs. society, sex trade, wasted potential due to uncontrollable forces, and man’s animalistic features such as basic instincts. Naturalism is a literary movement that developed into a literary style consisting of determinism, objectivity, and pessimism, all in efforts to portray the humanistic perspective in themes and characters. Naturalism and realism are tremendously similar in literary style but their slight differenceRead MoreEpistobabble Warfare1364 Words   |  6 Pagesobserve the realities of the environment through observation and develops a model to further investigate. Other perspectives put forward by Rod in his commentary, is his review of scientific realism whose quest is as explored by Blair and Zinkhan, 1984; Hunt, 1991; Zinkhan and Hirschheim, 1992). Scientific realism (SR) argues that truth is the appropriate goal for marketing theory and that science can know the real world but not with complete certainty. As Rod puts it although both SR and LP believesRead MoreASAM 5 Notes Essay6590 Words   |  27 Pagesare worthy of your time What is literature A James woods: Fiction is a creaseless experiment with uncollectable data An attempt to order data with the use of story Allows us to see the wholeness of a life we cannot see in our own life Forms: Realism, modernism, post modernism Froitzan on why he writes: I want to bring pleasure with everything I write†¦    On minority literature- Deleuze and Guattar: 3 features The deterriorializtion of a major language through a minor literature writtenRead MoreFar from Harmless Childrens Stories Essay1814 Words   |  8 PagesPassed down orally from generation to generation, fairy tales have been produced throughout history. They tell stories of witches, demons, creatures, dragons, and ultimately good vs. evil. Yet, delving into the real meaning behind fairy tales sheds light into motives of the lower class. For as long as there have been classes, the upper class has been taking advantage of the lower class. The lower class tries to earn freedom and equality throughout history. Fairy tales offered the lower class withRead MoreSocial Conflict Theory1130 Words   |  5 Pagesbe the most likely to suffer oppressive social relations based upon class division, sexism and racism.[2] More simply, critical criminology may be defined as any criminological topic area that takes into account the contextual factors of crime or critiques topics covered in mainstrea m criminology. In North America, critical criminology challenges the status quo. One branch of conflict theory is critical criminology. This term is based upon the view that the fundamental causes of crime is oppression

A Short Note On Diabetes And Mexican Immigrants - 1251 Words

Increased Diabetes in Mexican Immigrants Health Problem Introduction The foundation of the United States was built on migration. Every year new immigrants are coming into the country. Grieco et al. (2010) stated that in 2012 there were 11.7 million immigrants from Mexico living in America. Diabetes among Mexican immigrants have been increasing over the years, and now considered the highest risk group of getting diabetes (Barcellos, Goldman, Smith, 2012; O’Brien, Alos, Davey, Bueno, Whitaker, 2014). Evidence In regards to this problem, one hypothesis for the escalation is that later generations of Mexican immigrants, specifically second and third generations, are exposed and overstressed with assimilating to a new culture†¦show more content†¦Hopefully, educating and preventing myself from developing diabetes in the future. Pros and Cons When it comes to diabetes, there are no pros about this health problem. Conversely, there are many cons to this health issue. Most importantly, this disease has many complications, and one major complication is heart disease (CDC, 2015). Also, individuals with diabetes are fours time more likely to die due to heart disease, and is considered the top cause of death (CDC, 2015). According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2014), individuals of Hispanic descent have more complications and disability from diabetes, and there is high importance to reduce this among this population. However, another con, is a lack of resources for Mexican immigrants in self-management of diabetes. A study by Schneiderman et al. (2014), found that 47.9 percent of participants did not have health coverage, and 41.3 percent of participants did not know about their diabetes disease. Staggering results show that there is a need for support in various areas in the management of diabetes. As a re sult, my stance on this rising issue, is that diabetes can be managed with adequate resources, education and collaboration, especially in incorporating folk beliefs, that will lead to healthier lives for Mexican Immigrants (CDC, 2015; Gordon, 1994). Ethical Principles

Focault- Discipline and Punish Free Essays

string(109) " and knowledge use their controls on society to establish norms whereby they evaluate the actions of people\." Table of Contents Introduction2 Brief Overview2 Main arguments of discipline and Punish4 †¢Power4 †¢Prisons as part of civilisation4 †¢Punishment5 †¢The Body and Soul5 Evaluation of Discipline and Punish6 Conclusion7 ? Introduction: M. Foucault. 1975. We will write a custom essay sample on Focault- Discipline and Punish or any similar topic only for you Order Now Discipline and Punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Random House Inc. Below is an in depth book review of Discipline and Punish, The Birth of the Prison. The author who compiled the analysis on this is Michel Foucault, whom provided enlightenment on many different aspects of sociology and philosophy- many which are still immensely relevant to societies today. I will be using this book review to channel an outline of Foucault’s work, viewpoints and purposes as such. Along with this I will include my personal critique of my literary experience of the book. I will consider important factors of logic, coherence, evidence, expertise and originality. These specified fields are all crucial to useful and meaningful sociological theories. In brief, my aim is to clarify the argument presented by Foucault and provide my account of its validity. Brief Overview: Michel Foucault’s, Discipline and Punish, provides the reader of the historical timeline which ends at the institution of imprisonment that most modern societies have adopted today. The just of his intentions for the book are presented in the first section. Much of this includes his aim which is to trace the penal system back to its roots in order to define and identify its significance in the present. These roots begin in the seventeenth century. Here public torture and execution prevailed as the form of punishment. As aspects of society changed, especially power structures, so did this system of punishment- much like in an evolutionary manner. At this point it is probably important to highlight that a better alternative to the concept of the penal timeline, is rather a cycle- thus making visible the state it was in at birth and plotting its journey to maturity. The model of the prison is not yet a comprehendible result or solution in the beginning sections. Punishments were rather inhumane and gruesome methods of torture and execution which were â€Å"public spectacles†. The point of this was the solidification of the power figures amongst their people. This notion of power stirred amongst people who were ultimately discontent with the inefficiency of these structures. Whilst attempting to resolve this, a â€Å"reform† was created. Sadly, the preoccupation of the reform blinded people to the inhumanity, suffering and pain being brought upon these so-called criminals. Following this we see the transition to private and secret forms of punishment which was cut-off from public visibility. Coercive practices resulted in submissive criminals, with credit given to new techniques established by adapting and altering out-dated methods. The separation and the shift of focus from the body to the soul were early defining factors of the modern system. These also form an immensely important theme that is recurrent throughout the book. Foucault’s theoretical cycle of the penal system then moves on to preparation of criminals for their lives after incarceration and attempts to reintroduce these people back into society as respectable civilians. Considering noted critiques on this section, it remains unclear as to whether this was successful at its time of occurrence. An issue arising along with this stage is that of judgement- who is qualified to pass judgement and what standards are used for comparison? Finally, in the closing sections of the book we reach the heart of the book where we see the introduction of the first prison- highly influenced by the panoptic, and the penultimate stage which Foucault dates February 22, 1840. This date marks the success of the first carceral system which â€Å"perfected† the failures and short-comings of all the previous phases. Currently this institution has embedded itself in society and is the back-bone of order, laws and norms. The fact that at the moment there is no better alternatives to this, offers the assumption that the modern penal system has succeeded or human sciences are still advancing in order to further evolve current organisation- hence my prior labelling of this phase the â€Å"penultimate†. I feel that the purpose of the book is to inform the reader on a long list of various facets relating to sociology. These include the carceral system, the classical period, discipline, norms, power and penalty- to mention only a few. These all have significant importance in human sciences. My reaction or evaluation will conclude that Foucault has cleverly addressed establishments in sociology whilst using the penal system as a commonality to provide a practical sample- which in turn favours the readers understanding of sociology in general. The audience for this theoretical work is most likely to target scholars of human sciences and philosophy. It may also spark interests of inquiries into the classical period given its historical flair. Main arguments of Discipline and Punish: Power: Foucault uses power as a central point of reference for punishing. All or most aspects of the book revolve around this, or come back to it at a point. According to him, as power structures change, so does the penal system. It adapts to requirements. In the section of the book titled â€Å"Body of the condemned†, we see how torture and punishment was used to reinforce the power of the sovereign. Knowledge is also important to power, because it is seen as the support for power. Those with greater knowledge, tend to yield or accumulate greater power. â€Å"Power produces knowledge . . . power and knowledge directly imply one another . . . here is no power relation without the correlative constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and constitute at the same time power relations. † Foucault describes that power can range from modifying ones self-control to complete coercion. It is embedded in society and all relations. As long as power relations exist, there will always be inherent authority and control . Here we see the effects of the â€Å"power to judge†. Those possessing power and knowledge use their controls on society to establish norms whereby they evaluate the actions of people. You read "Focault- Discipline and Punish" in category "Essay examples" Post-judgement and examination incarceration is determined by how far the perpetrator strays from â€Å"normal†. In Foucault’s opinion, society has allowed sceptic officials to take the power to judge- people such as medical professionals, psychologists, etc. In essence, it is argued that power controls society, yet it cannot be controlled. Prison as a part of civilisation: It is emphasised time and time again throughout the book that the prison is part of society and the two cannot be separated. Prison is based on the judicial system (laws and rules governing our daily lives), which is embedded and weaved into society. Often Foucault mentions prisons along with institutions such as schools, hospitals and armies etc. They are all organised using the same framework of control and judgement- which emphasizes his stance that it is a part of society. The penal system of prison is too far incorporated into our lives to deny the connection which exists. Punishment: â€Å"The art of punishing must rest on a whole technology of representation† Foucault argues that each punishment should teach a lesson. It should not only take away a delinquents liberty and freedom, it should make them work, keep them active, enforce good habits. Prior to this, the penalty should correlate with the crime committed in order to create relevance. It need not be an attempt to control the body, but rather install regulation directed at achieving a goal- such as reintegration into community after incarceration. Discipline must be continuous and must take the role of coercion. This we see from Foucault that it can be done using timetables and ranks- here differentiation of various series is important. The Body and Soul: Punishment was initially assigned to the physical body using methods of torture for example. In addition to this, the body could be used to stir fear amongst people during public executions. The body and the visible are reinforcing factors. However, with the changes in power, the body is no longer a target of direct punishment. The body now, as Foucault says, is supervised, controlled and organised. Although the body is replaced with the soul, it will still share an adjacent bond with punishment. Foucault argues that he produces a â€Å"genealogical account for the modern soul†- meaning that he intends to identify where the soul originated. There are two factors to this process in Discipline and Punish. First it is what is revised above- is the soul takes over from the body as the directive for punishment. Secondly, the shift from body to soul and the new methods of discipline have ultimately generated or created the soul. Unlike the body, there are no limits to how you can penalize the soul. Evaluation of Discipline and Punish: Firstly, I will start by commenting on the extent to which the book achieves its desired goal. Foucault initially wanted to provide a power of speech for those confined to a discourse. This includes those who do not have the knowledge required to accumulate power. I feel that their issues have been brought to light, however the reasons exceeding this is for the purpose of gaining insight into the functioning of society in sociological terms. This does not give attention to their possibly ambiguous labelling of being â€Å"abnormal†. They have purely become a vessel to greater knowledge. Foucault rejected norms as positive determinants. It was seen by him as negative and oppressive. The unusual phenomenon is not a natural process instinctually followed by humans. Foucault strived to highlight this irregularity through his book. However, when commenting on individuality (which opposes norms) there is an inherent negative notion towards the concept. What then, if against norms and individuality, does Foucault conceptualise as an alternative? This is a possible indication of an argument which is incoherent and conflicting. Ultimately, as we see towards Foucault’s final sections, that his intention was not to ignite conspiracy and doubt in the minds if the reader regarding the prison, but rather to create understanding of its operation and the factors contributing to its processes. This was done with the utmost success. The historical context and actual case studies used provide valid and convincing confirmation. His views at this point are adequately supported. In terms of possibilities suggested by the book Foucault leaves us with the premise that the carceral system is very destructive in more ways than one. He also provides a new way for us to think of this system- as strong and highly powerful. We see that Foucault is optimistic toward change- thus highlighting prospective opportunities for the carceral system as well as the human sciences as a whole. The subject matter of the book has to this day not received further research- nothing of such extensive significance. Foucault has successfully provided us with a realistic account into the historical penal system and at the same time addressed common topics in sociology- much like his section on individualism. The material available to us regarding the penitentiary system tends to focus on specific regions or prisons-commonly those in the United States. A book which is well versed on the issue at hand is Situational Prison Control by Richard Hartley. However, it still does not divulge into the history and â€Å"birth† of the phenomenon. Foucault successfully identified a research topic which was in need of attention and enlightenment. I feel an aspect Foucault neglected to focus on was future summations for the penal system and all it entails. We do not see any of his suggestions for possible ways forward or resolutions to the problems that exist. He has a tendency throughout the book, to highlight many downfalls yet no solutions. A few of personal proposals would have stimulated the readers thinking, ultimately opening doors for advancement for progress. Along with the above, I feel there is a lot that needs to be said on social divides amongst society. Foucault briefly touches on classes and social and economic situation but almost immediately redirected the train of thought. There is more to various demographics which influence all institutions throughout societies. Foucault failed to report on this and the way that their changes affect power relations and ultimately the penal system. Some of these demographics may include gender, age, race and ethnicity. Conclusion: I constantly referred back to specific criteria when considering the main arguments or theories of Discipline and Punish. This was helpful in concluding my opinion on whether Foucault has successfully argued his theory. My review concludes that a good research problem was identified and stated. The causes of this were also made apparent to the reader. Foucault carefully planned the way he would take-on this topic by testifying clear and concise points of view. At times it felt as though the argument was not coherent in that it would jump from one context to another. However, the main arguments and themes- such as the body and the soul were constantly referred to. This redeemed coherence with a well tied together and relevant argument- especially in the last section where everything is positioned into place. The evidence Foucault uses to elaborate his views and arguments are sufficient to enhance the validity of his study and specific arguments. He often provides actual occurrences in history- much like his introduction reporting on Damien’s execution in 1757 and referring to the opening of Mettray prison colony. Extensive referencing has been made available allowing further validation of facts. This in turn contributes to his ability to convince and persuade. Michel Foucault most definitely possessed the right attributes and expertise to work on this research problem. He had extensive training and experience in human sciences, from which he created his career. His direct encounters with the penal systems and prisons also granted him access to knowledge not readily available to others- thus making his expertise relative to the issue at hand. Keeping the short-comings I have mentioned in mind, I feel that Foucault’s arguments are valid and they all have been researched to the point where its concrete significance cannot be denied. Their continued relevance over the years supports my conclusion and it has in general been presented in a clear and concise manner. How to cite Focault- Discipline and Punish, Essay examples